The ACOMM Aneurysm: Balloons and Blood

In order to understand the anterior communicating artery, we have to first appreciate the anatomy of the anterior cerebral arteries. The anterior cerebral arteries are one of the two terminal branches of each internal carotid artery (the other being the middle cerebral artery). Each anterior cerebral artery has several sections from A1 to A5.

Each A1 segment branches into an A2 segment and into the anterior communicating artery. The anterior communicating artery connects each anterior cerebral arteries’ A1 segment together to form a circle (see schematic below).

The anterior communicating artery is one of the most common sites for intracranial aneurysm formation. Patients at risk for developing aneurysms include those with atherosclerosis, those with a family history of intracranial aneurysms, those with a history of hypertension or collagen vascular disease, and those with polycystic kidney disease. Smokers are also at a higher risk of developing aneurysms.

Basilar Tip Schematic Drawing
Anterior communicating artery aneurysms form when the lining of the vessel wall is thinned and the muscular layer of the blood vessel (tunica media) becomes weakened.

This thinning allows turbulent blood flow to form out-pouchings in the vessel wall. Typically these out-pouchings occur at points where blood vessels branch.

Signs and Symptoms

Anterior communicating artery aneurysms commonly present after a subarachnoid hemorrhage, which can cause a variety of signs and symptoms. The most common being a severe headache, although cranial nerve dysfunction, stroke, coma, and death can also occur.

Less commonly, aneurysms in this location can compress the optic chiasm or optic nerves leading to problems with vision.

How Do You Diagnose Aneurysms

Anterior cerebral artery aneurysms are most commonly diagnosed after a subarachnoid hemorrhage when a patient presents with the "worst headache of their life". The best imaging methods for diagnosing these aneurysms are CT angiograms (see image below), MR angiograms, and formal cerebral angiograms.

Treatment

Like other intracranial aneurysms, anterior communicating artery aneurysms may be clipped or coiled. Clipping of an aneurysm involves an open surgical procedure where the surgeon dissects down to the aneurysm and places a clip across its neck. This excludes it from the circulation and prevents it from rupturing.

Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysm CT Angiogram

Aneurysms may also be treated from inside the blood vessel. In this procedure a catheter is threaded from the femoral artery in the groin up towards the location of the aneurysm. Small metallic coils are placed within the dome of the aneurysm, which also excludes it from the normal circulation.

Regardless of how the aneurysm is treated – either with clipping or coiling – the end result is that the aneurysm is excluded from the normal circulation. This prevents it from rupturing.

The merits of clipping versus coiling are still under debate. Ultimately, the treatment depends on the size and location of the aneurysm, as well as other medical problems that the patient may have.

The Highlights…

Anterior communicating artery aneurysms are the most common intracranial aneurysm. They typically present after rupturing into the subarachnoid space and/or adjacent frontal lobes. They are diagnosed using CT angiograms or formal cerebral angiography. Treatment is with clipping and/or coiling.

Related Readings

Not Satisfied? More Reading on the Subject…

  • Bederson JB, Awad IA, Wiebers DO, et al. Recommendations for the management of patients with unruptured intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2000;31:2742-2750.
  • li>Hunt WE, Hess RM. Surgical Risk as Related to Time of Intervention in the Repair of Intracranial Aneurysms. Journal of Neurosurgery 1968; 28:14-20.
  • Brisman JL, Song JK, Newell DW. Cerebral Aneurysms. NEJM 2006; 355:928-939.
  • Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. Seventh Edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2004.
  • Frontera JA. Decision Making in Neurocritical Care. First Edition. New York: Thieme, 2009.
  • Greenberg MS. Handbook of Neurosurgery. Sixth Edition. New York: Thieme, 2006. Chapter 25.

Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: Aneurysms, Vasospasm, and Hyponatremia

In order to understand subarachnoid hemorrhage we have to first appreciate the layers that make up the brain and its surrounding tissues. The brain itself has three protective layers: dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia.

The dura is a thick layer of fibrous tissue immediately below the skull. Below the dura is the arachnoid, which is a layer of delicate web-like tissue (hence the name "arachnoid"). Finally, below the arachnoid is the pia mater. The pia is a very thin layer that is directly adjacent to brain tissue.

The subarachnoid space, or the region between the arachnoid tissue and the pia contains cerebrospinal fluid, which acts like a liquid shock absorber for the brain. Also contained within the subarachnoid space are blood vessels that penetrate down into the brain tissue. Sometimes these blood vessels "leak", which can cause a "sub-arachnoid" hemorrhage.

Brain Layers

The most common cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage is traumatic injury; the most common non-traumatic cause is a ruptured aneurysm.

An aneurysm is an abnormal ballooning out of a blood vessel’s wall. The balloon’s dome is much weaker than the rest of the vessel wall. These weak areas can rupture allowing blood to leak out of into the subarachnoid space.

Other causes of subarachnoid hemorrhage include idiopathic (ie: unknown) causes, arteriovenous malformations, vessel dissections, and very rarely tumors. Regardless of the cause, blood will pool in the subarachnoid space.

The remainder of this article will focus on the most common non-traumatic cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage – aneurysm rupture.

Signs and Symptoms

The classic symptom of a subarachnoid hemorrhage is a horrific headache described as the “worst headache of their life". Photophobia, nausea, vomiting, and nuchal rigidity are also common. Seizures may also occur. In addition, depending on how severe the subarachnoid hemorrhage is, patients may have decreased levels of consciousness; some patients become comatose, and many die before reaching medical attention.

The patient’s clinical status is graded according to the Hunt and Hess system. It only applies to patients in whom subarachnoid hemorrhage is caused by rupture of an aneurysm. This grading system was initially established to help determine mortality and clinical outcomes. In modern practice, these numbers are likely high given modern improvements in critical care and neurosurgical intervention since Hunt and Hess first developed their grading system.

Hunt and Hess Clinical Grading Scale
Grade Patient’s Clinical Status Associated Mortality
1 Mild headache and/or nuchal rigidity 1%
2 Cranial nerve dysfunction, moderate to severe headache and/or nuchal rigidity 5%
3 Mild focal neurological deficit, lethargic, confused 19%
4 Stuporous, moderate to severe hemiparesis, early decerebrate posturing 40%
5 Coma, decerebrate posturing 77%

The world federation of neurological surgeons also has a clinical score based on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). It associates the patient’s GCS with the likelihood of death.

World Federation of Neurological Surgeons Grading System
  GCS Major focal deficit Mortality
1 15 No 5%
2 13-14 No 9%
3 13-14 Yes or No 20%
4 7-12 Yes or No 33%
5 3-6 Yes or No 77%

It is very important to think about the possibility of subarachnoid hemorrhage in patients presenting with these signs and symptoms. Prompt diagnosis and treatment is necessary in order to prevent devastating consequences!

Complications

Blood in the subarachnoid space is very irritating to the brain and cerebral blood vessels. Because of this, several complications can occur.

One of the most common complications is known as "vasospasm." Vasospasm occurs when the blood vessels of the brain spasm several days after the initial hemorrhage. When this occurs blood is no longer able to flow past the blockage; if this occurs for a long enough period of time a stroke can occur. The peak period for vasospasm occurs between 3 and 14 days after the initial bleed.

Another complication of subarachnoid hemorrhage is known as cerebral salt wasting. This occurs when a patient urinates excessive amounts of sodium causing the blood level of sodium to drop precipitously. Because of the excessive urination the patient also becomes dehydrated. Aggressive fluid and salt resuscitation must be given to prevent profound hyponatremia (ie: decreased sodium levels in the blood), which can cause seizures, coma, and death.

In addition, for unknown reasons, many patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage also shower their cerebral hemispheres with micro-thrombi (ie: clots), which can lead to many small strokes. The reason why patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage become coagulopathic is still an area of intense research.

Diagnosis

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is most commonly diagnosed by head CT. CT scans are fast and readily pick up the extravasated blood, which layers in the subarachnoid space (see image below). If there is a high clinical index of suspicion but CT of the head is negative than a lumbar puncture should be performed. If the spinal fluid has xanthochromima (a product of red blood cell breakdown) this is highly concerning for subarachnoid hemorrhage.

CT Scan of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is not a diagnosis per say, but rather the result of some underlying pathology (ie: aneurysm, trauma, etc.). Many of these pathologies are treatable; therefore, it is important to figure out what caused the subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Since many are the result of ruptured aneurysms there are several other tests that are often done. The first test is a CT angiogram (CTA). In this test a radio-opaque material is injected into the blood vessels and a CT is performed.

Cererbral Angiogram with Aneurysm
Dye in the dome of the aneurysm will appear as an abnormality helping to confirm the presence, and more importantly the location of the aneurysm.

A more invasive procedure known as a "cerebral angiogram" (image to the right) is also often performed.

In this test, a catheter is inserted into blood vessels in the groin and then threaded up into the blood vessels of the brain. Radio-opaque material is injected and x-rays can pick up abnormalities in the vessel.

The benefit of doing a cerebral angiogram is that it is diagnostic, and treatment can frequently be offered through the catheter itself.

Treatment

There are three main components of treating a subarachnoid hemorrhage: treating the underlying cause, preventing a "re-bleed", and preventing secondary complications.

Since many subarachnoid hemorrhages are caused by aneurysm rupture we’ll discuss the treatment for this common cause. Aneurysms are treated either “open” or “closed”.

“Open” refers to a surgical procedure in which part of the skull is removed. The surgeon then dissects down to the aneurysm. Once identified, a clip is placed around the neck of the aneurysm (ie: you can think of the clip as putting a knot in the neck of a balloon). This stops blood from flowing into the aneurysm, and therefore prevents re-rupture.

“Closed” treatment refers to endovascular technology in which a small micro-catheter is threaded from the blood vessels in the groin into the cerebral vasculature. The aneurysm is located via angiogram. Through a hole in the microcatheter tip the physician then fills the aneurysm dome with small metallic coils.

Once blood is in the subarachnoid space secondary complications often result. One of these complications is referred to as "vasospasm". Medications such as oral nimodipine and intra-arterial nifedipine are used to reduce the amount of vasospasm by inhibiting smooth muscle contraction in the wall of the blood vessel.

Overview

Subarachnoid hemorrhage occurs most commonly after an intracerebral aneurysm ruptures, although other causes exist. Regardless of the cause, blood spills out into the subarachnoid space. Symptoms include a horrible headache, focal neurological deficits (ie: weakness, difficulty speaking, etc.), and coma. If an aneurysm is the cause, it is secured with clipping or coiling. Preventing secondary complications such as vasospasm is also an important component of treatment.

References and Resources