burst fracture

Denis’ Three Column Spine: A Simple Way to Think About Spinal Stability

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The three column model of the spine was first introduced by Dr. Francis Denis in his aptly named paper, "The Three Column Spine and its Significance in the Classification of Acute Thoracolumbar Spinal Injuries". This paper, published in 1983, proposed a new biomechanical model for spinal stability that challenged Dr. Frank Holdsworth’s two column model from the 1960s. Although replaced by more modern grading scales (ie: the TLICS model) the three column spine is a simple way to think about spinal biomechanics.

Denis’ three column model proposes that the thoracolumbar spine can be divided into three columns. The first column includes the anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) up to the first half of the bony vertebral body. The second column includes the second half (ie: more posterior half) of the vertebral body, up to, and including the posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL). The third column includes the pedicles, spinal cord/thecal sac, lamina, transverse processes, facet joints, spinous process, and the posterior ligaments (ie: supraspinous, interspinous, and ligamentum flavum).

The purpose of Denis’ model was to delineate which injuries to the thoracolumbar spine were considered "unstable". This delineation was important because it determined which patient’s required operative treatment of their spine.

Simply stated, an unstable spine was present if two or more of the columns were involved in the injury. However, it is important to note that every rule can be broken, so not all injuries follow this rule. Part of the "art" of practicing spine surgery is determining which two-column injuries can be left alone and managed non-operatively, and which truly require operative intervention.

Types of Injuries

Based on Denis’ model he classified specific types of injuries. Injuries to the anterior column only were called "compression fractures". Damage to the anterior and middle columns were known as "burst fractures". Injury to the middle and posterior column were known as "flexion-distraction" injuries, or more colloquially as "seat-belt type" injuries. Finally, damage to all three columns were classified as "fracture-dislocation" injuries.

Classification of Thoracolumbar Injuries Using the Three Column Model
Columns Name Stability
Anterior Compression fracture Stable
Anterior and Middle Burst fracture Unstable
Middle and Posterior Flexion-distraction injury (aka: seat-belt type) Unstable
Anterior, middle, and posterior Fracture-dislocation Unstable

Examples of Thoracolumbar Spine Fractures

Clinical Significance

In very simple terms, unstable fractures require definitive treatment. Treatment for unstable spine injuries is usually operative, although rigid immobilization with bracing is sometimes used in certain circumstances.

The treatment of each fracture type is beyond the scope of this article (and discussed in more detail elsewhere on this site), but suffice it to stay that for the most part (and again, every rule was made to be broken) two or three column injures = unstable = surgery.

Overview

Denis’ three column model of the spine revolutionized the way we think about spinal biomechanics and stability. He divided the spine into three columns. Although it has been largely replaced by more modern grading scales such as the thoracolumbar injury classification and severity score (TLICS) it is still a nice way to “think” about spinal integrity.

Other Common Spine Injuries…

References and Resources

Burst Fractures: Axial Loading Leading to Ouch!

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Burst fractures are a specific type of spine fracture in which the body of a given vertebrae “bursts” into pieces. By definition a burst fracture involves the entire vertebral body. The image below is an example of a normal lumbar spine with the vertebral bodies outlined.

Burst fractures most commonly occur at the junction between the thoracic and lumbar spine. This junction is an area where the rigid thoracic spine transitions to the more mobile lumbar spine, and hence is an intrinsic point of weakness. This is why most burst fractures occur between the T10 through L2 vertebrae.

CT vertebral body

Axial loading of the spine is what causes burst fractures. They typically occur after a traumatic events like car accidents or falls from significant heights. Elderly individuals, and those with poor bone quality, may suffer burst fractures after minor trauma such as falling from a chair.

Signs and Symptoms

Burst fractures invariably present with back pain at the site of the fracture. Depending on the exact location signs and symptoms of nerve root compression or lower spinal cord injury may occur.

If the nerves that dangle in the lumbar spine (aka: the cauda equina) get compressed by the fragments of bone then weakness, numbness, tingling, and even bowel and bladder problems may occur.

Burst fractures between T10 and L1 can cause damage to the end of the spinal cord (the spinal cord ends at L1 or L2 in most individuals), which can lead to lower extremity weakness, or even paralysis, as well as bowel and bladder dysfunction.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of a burst fracture is made using a combination of x-rays, CT scans, and MRIs. These three imaging modalities serve different functions when evaluating the severity of a burst fracture.

X-rays are usually the first imaging ordered in patients with suspected spine fractures. If the plain x-rays show a burst fracture then CT scanning is usually done to further assess the degree of bony injury (see image below for an example of an L2 burst fracture).

MRI is used to detect ligamentous injury. The degree of ligamentous injury indicates a higher degree of instability; information about ligament integrity helps determine treatment options.

Burst Fracture Lumbar Spine

Treatment

Treatment of burst fractures is highly dependent on the severity of the burst fracture. Treatment is either conservative with immobilization in a brace (ie: a "TLSO" or thoracolumbar sacral orthotic brace) or surgical fixation.

Burst fracture after instrumentation
As a rough rule of thumb patients with any of the following criteria should be strongly considered for surgical correction:

  • Greater than 50% vertebral body height loss.
  • Greater than 25 to 40 degrees of kyphosis.
  • Greater than 50% spinal canal compromise.
  • Significant posterior ligamentous injury.
  • Any neurological signs or symptoms referable to the injury.
  • If the patient fails conservative therapy with a brace.

Surgical correction can be achieved in a variety of ways and is often related to surgeon preference. Some surgeons will remove a significant portion of the fractured vertebral body and place a “cage” in the area, a procedure known as a “corpectomy”. This, combined with rods and screws from posteriorly provides the greatest stability, but has a higher risk of nerve injury. Not uncommonly, the fractured vertebral body is left alone and rods and screws are placed from behind only. This is especially true if the fractured level shows minimal spinal canal compromise.

Overview

Burst fractures of the thoracolumbar spine typically occur after high impact axial loading. They usually occur between T10 and L2, but can be seen anywhere in the spine. Patients will almost invariably have pain at the fracture site and may or may not have neurological signs and symptoms depending on the severity of the fracture. Diagnosis is made with CT, plain x-rays, and MRI. Treatment is highly dependent on the individual fracture and ranges from bracing to surgical fixation.

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References and Resources